Solitary Confinement: Psychological, Psychophysiological, and Behavioral Implications among Inmates
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Solitary Confinement: Psychological, Psychophysiological, and Behavioral Implications among Inmates
Chadick, C. D., Batastini, A. B., Levulis, S. J., & Morgan, R. D. (2018). The psychological impact of solitary: A longitudinal comparison of the general population and long‐term administratively segregated male inmates. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 23(2), 101-116. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12125
This study focuses on enhancing existing research on the psychological implications of administratively segregating prisoners from the general prison population. The researchers indicate there is a slight difference between the general and segregated inmate population. Those who have experienced solitary confinement express higher distress levels than the general inmate population. This is particularly on the measures of anxiety, post-traumatic stress, depressed mood, and somatic complaints. Besides, a mental health intervention in prison indicated some levels of improvement among the general population’s functioning while the confined inmates’ psychological functioning remained the same. Therefore, segregation is a major barrier to an individual’s rehabilitation capacity. One has increased chances of re-offending upon release to the general population or society as their behaviors are managed and not rehabilitated to fit among others. The study findings are reliable since the researchers utilized a pre-post design approach among male inmates.
The study findings support my study topic regarding the psychological and behavioral impacts of solitary confinement. Those advocating its use view it from a legal perspective of deterring certain behaviors and ensuring safety within correctional facilities. However, solitary confinement contains harsh conditions for a human to endure. Everyone reacts to a harsh environment differently, and thus every inmate in detention will experience the psychological, cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological effects differently. The major negative mental impacts among the inmates influence poor behavioral functioning like the development of antisocial behaviors. Besides, re-offending is a higher possibility among these detained inmates as they have limited opportunities to make the necessary behavioral improvements and amend their characters.
Haney, C. (2018). The psychological effects of solitary confinement: A systematic critique. Crime and Justice, 47(1), 365-416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/696041
The study by Haney depicts the psychological effects among inmates regarding solitary confinement. He indicates the effects have been consistent since the early 19th century, whereby the inmates experience adverse psychological reactions for being isolated from the general prison population. The distress prevalence is extremely high, leading to major mental health concerns in various incarceration facilities. Regardless of the implications, there is increased usage of this approach in most correctional facilities today. There are two viewpoints to its use whereby some advocate for its use while others resist. Those advocating indicate that solitary confinement is critical in reducing the levels of recidivism since the approach is a deterrence tool. Therefore, inmates and society in general would opt to avoid crime and imprisonment since the effects of solitary confinement are adverse. This approach potentially reduces crime rates in society. However, those against solitary confinement indicate the mental/psychological health implications and increased possibility of re-offending.
Re-offending is estimated to be six times higher among inmates who have been to solitary confinement than general prisoners’ population (Haney, 2016). This is so since one does not get over the harsh experience, does not heal and continuously have anxiety issues and flashbacks. One will always have issues adjusting to normalcy following the psychological trauma one experiences in solitary confinement. One main reason for such is the lack of proper rehabilitation services to allow individuals to smoothly transition into the general population in prison or community upon release. Thus, human beings are social beings and would want to be around others. However, the solitary confinement repudiates offenders from efficient social contact and accessing a positive environment for mental stimulation. This increases their risk of psychological functioning deterioration.
Labrecque, R. M., Gendreau, P., Morgan, R. D., & King, M. M. (2020). Revisiting the Walpole Prison Solitary Confinement Study (WPSCS): A content analysis of the studies citing Grassian (1983). Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 26(3), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000247
The article has efficiently analyzed the growing concerns on the topic of solitary confinement and bases the study on one prison- Walpole Prison. The study report indicates that the prisoners who have been placed in solitary confinement often suffer major traumatic psychological damages. This indicates that one is prone to major psychological disorders due to the strict isolation from the general population. Such include anxiety, depression, paranoia, and psychosis following the prolonged isolation aspect. The study has utilized peer-reviewed literature surveys for referencing various studies. The researchers indicate that over the past years, solitary confinement usage has increased. This has led to poor prison management since solitary is not a humane way to reducing crime.
Therefore, the study indicates the various opinions regarding the utilization of solitary confinement within the criminal justice system. One could argue that legally, the approach would be efficient in crime reduction and recidivism. However, there is the ethical aspect of humanity and the psychology of how solitary confinement implicates an inmate. One is exposed to extreme isolation levels since they are locked up for approximately 23 hours a day and only have less time to see other people, interact with them and enjoy the environment. Such disintegrates with the person’s psychological capacity to sustain the harsh reality of isolation, thus triggering certain issues affecting their well-being. This explains the advocacy against the use of solitary confinement as a tool to reduce crime. Instead, its increased usage impacts the inmates’ psychological health, and one is more likely to do crimes after leaving solitary detention.
Luigi, M., Dellazizzo, L., Giguère, C. É., Goulet, M. H., & Dumais, A. (2020). Shedding light on “the Hole”: A systematic review and meta-analysis on adverse psychological effects and mortality following solitary Confinement in correctional settings. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 840. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00840
The researchers have systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed various psychological effects and rates of mortality among inmates exposed to solitary confinement. The article further indicates that solitary confinement highly relates to the psychological deterioration among inmates. Such effects are beyond the general incarceration experiences or the offenders’ past mental illness experiences. Therefore, the confinement highly poses significant amounts of harm for imprisoned individuals. Psychological effects have diverse possible outcomes, including deterioration of one’s health, which may cause post-release death due to increased suicidal thoughts and psychosis. The researchers have recommended further needs for treatments and alternatives for the solitary confinement approach usage. This would help alleviate the possible psychological harm caused. The study has used a systematic review of secondary data sources from efficient databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, PsycINFO, and Web of Science. Hence, it illustrates the validity and reliability of the study findings for use in this analysis.
Based on the research findings, 23% of the total sample of 382 440 inmates have been exposed to solitary confinement. This evidence further indicates that their experience is highly associated with increased adverse psychological effects, death following suicidal means, and increased self-harm behaviors. The majority of them often try finding a means of dealing with emotional distress due to prolonged isolation. Others have significant psychological effects such as mood disorders, psychotic episodes, and hostility symptoms. These impacts thus affect the inmate’s capacity to regain normalcy in their lives as their general well-being has been triggered negatively, thus affecting them. Besides, the mood and psychotic disorders one experiences risk them to engage in other crimes upon release, thus fostering the high recidivism rates.
Luigi, M., Dellazizzo, L., Giguère, C.-É., Goulet, M.-H., Potvin, S., & Dumais, A. (2020). Solitary Confinement of Inmates Associated With Relapse Into Any Recidivism Including Violent Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 152483802095798–1524838020957983. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020957983
This article has effectively analyzed the association of solitary confinement to the relapsing of inmates into recidivism. Mostly, the segregated inmate is more likely to commit violent crimes than the general prison population upon release. The researchers have also disputed that segregation can efficiently help reduce recidivism and institutional misconduct. Solitary confinement is highly associated with psychological deterioration. The study has used a meta-analysis approach in clarifying the impacts of segregation on re-offending for the inmates compared to the general inmate population. Therefore, there is a higher association between increased usage of solitary confinement and recidivism comprising more violent crimes, rearrests, and reincarceration. The researchers indicate that segregation increases the inmates’ antisocial behaviors, implicates their mental well-being and psychosocial programming.
The study’s findings indicate that solitary confinement increasingly changes a person’s perspective towards life. Their freedom is highly snatched away, and they are left by themselves to survive long, lonely times. This affects a person’s psychological and behavioral well-being, especially how they respond to various situations and people. Therefore, it deteriorates one’s mental health following a person’s vulnerability risks. These include the development of paranoia, schizophrenia, delusions, hallucinations, anxiety, and claustrophobia. The segregations cause a person to lose their grip on reality. This influences their engagement in self-destructive behaviors as a way to have control over their surroundings.
Reiter, K., Ventura, J., Lovell, D., Augustine, D., Barragan, M., Blair, T., Chesnut, K., Dashtgard, P., Gonzalez, G., Pifer, N., & Strong, J. (2020). Psychological Distress in Solitary Confinement: Symptoms, Severity, and Prevalence in the United States, 2017-2018. American journal of public health, 110(S1), S56–S62. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305375
The study’s main objective is to define the various symptoms of psychological distress among inmates. The researchers are further focused on providing various measures to help determine the prevalence of psychological distress for incarcerated individuals within the long-term solitary confinement. The study indicates the major psychological impacts due to segregation as they enhance the inmate’s self-harm, paranoia, anxiety, aggressiveness, and depression levels. The study has utilized qualitative study strategies to gather data using semi-structured and in-depth interviews, Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) assessments, and systematic reviews. The follow-up interview conducted after a year and a BPRS assessment is crucial in defining solitary confinement’s implications on incarcerated individuals. The findings have been presented using content analysis and descriptive statistics, thus indicating the efficacy of the findings attained for analysis.
Based on the study results, the article supports my topic of choice regarding the impacts of solitary confinement on the inmates’ psychological, behavioral, psychophysiological, and cognitive well-being. The BPRS findings have indicated that inmates exposed to long solitary confinement show significant levels of clinical psychological symptoms. These include depression, anxiety, and guiltiness. Thus, one is prone to serious mental health issues and end up engaging in self-harming behaviors, unlike the general prison population. Further, the inmate who has undergone solitary becomes socially isolated, feels to have lost their identity, and others experience sensory hypersensitivity. Due to a lack of proper mental health care in prisons, solitary confinement often affects the person within and after being released. This raises an alarm of their possibility of recidivism.
Strong, J. D., Reiter, K., Gonzalez, G., Tublitz, R., Augustine, D., Barragan, M., Chesnut, K., Dashtgard, P., Pifer, N., & Blair, T. R. (2020). The body in isolation: The physical health impacts of incarceration in solitary confinement. PloS one, 15(10), e0238510. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238510
The researchers in this study have focused on examining the health implications of incarceration in solitary confinement. Segregation has a significant correlation with diverse psychophysiological health outcomes. These outcomes further indicate the major health disparities relating to incarceration as the inmates receive less mental health care. Not only do inmates segregated suffer mentally, but also their physical health is affected. People of color are more likely to experience these implications. The researchers have utilized mixed methods in collecting data, thus ensuring the reliability of the information used in the text. The data analyzed indicate that most segregated inmates suffer skin irritations and weight fluctuations following the restrictive solitary confinement conditions. Besides, any untreated chronic condition is due to restrictive policies, increasing the inmates’ morbidity and mortality rates.
Therefore, the findings have illustrated that solitary confinement of the inmates does impact their well-being negatively. One is exposed to harsh conditions, and in most cases, one never forgets the experience. This is because the experiences are entangled in their psychological well-being, which hardens them towards surviving any situation. From a negative perspective, the inmates come out of solitary knowing they can break the law and still survive the repercussions since they have survived the segregation once already. Similarly, this shows that they are more at risk of re-offending than the general prison population. Based on this discussion, there is a need to develop diverse practices and strategies to ensure rehabilitation programs are effectively implemented to reduce the major psychological, behavioral, and psychophysiological impacts of solitary confinement among inmates.
References
Chadick, C. D., Batastini, A. B., Levulis, S. J., & Morgan, R. D. (2018). The psychological impact of solitary: A longitudinal comparison of the general population and long‐term administratively segregated male inmates. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 23(2), 101-116. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12125
Haney, C. (2018). The psychological effects of solitary confinement: A systematic critique. Crime and Justice, 47(1), 365-416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/696041
Labrecque, R. M., Gendreau, P., Morgan, R. D., & King, M. M. (2020). Revisiting the Walpole Prison Solitary Confinement Study (WPSCS): A content analysis of the studies citing Grassian (1983). Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 26(3), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000247
Luigi, M., Dellazizzo, L., Giguère, C. É., Goulet, M. H., & Dumais, A. (2020). Shedding light on “the Hole”: A systematic review and meta-analysis on adverse psychological effects and mortality following solitary Confinement in correctional settings. Frontiers in psychiatry, 11, 840. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00840
Luigi, M., Dellazizzo, L., Giguère, C.-É., Goulet, M.-H., Potvin, S., & Dumais, A. (2020). Solitary Confinement of Inmates Associated With Relapse Into Any Recidivism Including Violent Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 152483802095798–1524838020957983. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020957983
Reiter, K., Ventura, J., Lovell, D., Augustine, D., Barragan, M., Blair, T., Chesnut, K., Dashtgard, P., Gonzalez, G., Pifer, N., & Strong, J. (2020). Psychological Distress in Solitary Confinement: Symptoms, Severity, and Prevalence in the United States, 2017-2018. American journal of public health, 110(S1), S56–S62. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305375
Strong, J. D., Reiter, K., Gonzalez, G., Tublitz, R., Augustine, D., Barragan, M., Chesnut, K., Dashtgard, P., Pifer, N., & Blair, T. R. (2020). The body in isolation: The physical health impacts of incarceration in solitary confinement. PloS one, 15(10), e0238510. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238510