+ Developmental Psychology Moral Behavior Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Moral Development Moral Judgment The Early Development of Conscience Prosocial Behavior Antisocial Behavior ✔ ✔ The Development of Prosocial Behavior • Sharing, helping, and comforting are examples of developmental consistency in children’s readiness to engage in prosocial behaviors. Ringo Chiu/ZUMA Press/Corbis Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Altruistic Prosocial Behavior Adults generally want children to help others for altruistic motives. • These motives initially include empathy or sympathy for others Altruistic Prosocial Behavior • Empathy is a reaction to another ‘s emotional state or condition that is similar to that person ‘s state or condition. • Sympathy is concern for another person (or animal) in reaction to the other ‘s emotional state or condition Andy Cox/ Getty Images Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Altruistic Prosocial Behavior An important factor contributing to empathy or sympathy is the ability to take another’s perspective. • Infants respond to others’ distress, but may not differentiate between others’ emotional reactions and their own. • At about age 2, children start to more clearly differentiate between another’s emotional distress and their own, although their responses may still be egocentric. • In the 2nd and 3rd years of life, the frequency and variety of young children’s prosocial behaviors increase, although they do not regularly act in prosocial ways. • From the preschool years to adolescence, children’s prosocial behaviors increase. Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior Family factors • Primary environmental influence on children’s prosocial behavior development is their family socialization. • Values parents convey to their children may influence not only whether children are prosocial, but also toward whom they are prosocial. Chris Anderson/ Aurora Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior Participation factors • Experiencing emotional rewards for helping • Taking others’ perspectives • Increasing confidence in their ability to help others Parenting and discipline • Parents who are constructive and supportive in their parenting tend to have children who are high in prosocial behavior and sympathy. Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library The Development of Aggression and Other Antisocial Behaviors • Reactive aggression is used in response to the perceived hostility of others Aggression is behavior aimed at harming or injuring others. The Development of Aggression and Other Antisocial Behaviors When violence is used as a means to achieve ends, it is called proactive aggression (or instrumental aggression). Relational Aggression involves harm to relationships: spreading rumors, withholding friendship to inflict harm, and ignoring or excluding peers from the group. Crick & Grotpeter, (1995) More common in girls than boys. Not correlated with physical or verbal aggression. The Development of Aggression and Other Antisocial Behaviors Development of Aggression Aggressive behavior emerges at around 18 months and increases until about age 2, when it decreases in frequency. • With the growth of language skills, verbal aggression increases. Instrumental aggression is common among preschoolers. • Preschool children sometimes use relational aggression also. Myrleen Pearson/ PhotoEdit Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Prevalence of Self-reported Violence for Males and Females at Different Ages Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library The Relation of Peer-Nominated Aggression at Age 8 to Self-Reported Aggression at Age 30 Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Behavioral Disorders Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD): Angry, defiant behavior that is age inappropriate and persistent. Conduct disorder (CD): Antisocial and aggressive behaviors that inflict pain on others and are frequently accompanied by persistent school truancy or running away from home before age 13. Origins of Aggression: Abusive Discipline Abusive punishment is likely to be associated with the development of antisocial tendencies regardless of race, ethnicity, or culture. • Parents who use abusive punishment provide their children with salient models of aggression. • Children who are low in self-regulation tend to elicit harsher discipline. Ace Stock Limited/Alamy Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Origins of Aggression: Inconsistent Discipline Inconsistency • Parents who are inconsistent in administering discipline and following through on punishments are more likely than other parents to have children who are aggressive and delinquent. Origins of Aggression: Verbal and Physical Violence Children who are frequently exposed to verbal and physical violence between their parents tend to be more antisocial and aggressive than other children. Low socioeconomic status is also a risk factor for antisocial behavior in children. iStockphoto/ Thinkstock Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Origins of Aggression Having antisocial friends or being part of an antisocial peer group can contribute to antisocial activities. • Aggressive children tend to socialize with other aggressive children. • The larger peer group with whom older children and adolescents socialize may influence aggression even more than close friends do. Origins of Aggression • It appears that children ‘s susceptibility to peer pressure to become involved in antisocial behavior increases in the elementary school years, peaks at about 8th or 9th grade, and declines thereafter. • An important peer influence on antisocial behavior can be membership in a gang. Mark Richards/ PhotoEdit Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) Why were Bandura’ s Bobo Doll Studies “Revolutionary” Challenged two dominant worldviews: Behaviorism: mere observation Freudian: catharsis Media as Mechanism? Modeling: Strong evidence comes from the Bobo Doll studies. Desensitization: Children become used to observing violence so it no longer “fazes” them (e.g..Cullingford, 1984) Interventions Fast Track: An intervention designed to prevent antisocial behavior and violence • Initially implemented with 400 1st-grade classes from lowincome families in four U.S. cities Football, Bentota, Sri Lanka, 1998 (oil on canvas), © Andrew Macara / Private Collection / The Bridgeman Art Library Interventions Fast Track consists of two major parts: 1. All children in intervention classes were trained with a special curriculum to promote prosocial behavior and to increase emotional self-regulation. 2. Children with the most serious problem behaviors received a more intensive intervention involving special meetings, social skills training, and academic tutoring.